Express the greatest common divisor of the following pair of polynomials as a combination of polynomials: $f(x) = x^3 + x^2 +x +1$ and $g(x) = x^4 + x^2 + 1$.
I've been trying to understand this, but still can't get how I should do it in $\mathbb{Z}_2[x]$.
There’s really nothing different from solving such problems in $\Bbb Z$.
Using the Euclidean algorithm in its most straightforward form, not trying to be mechanically efficient:
$$\begin{align*} x^4+x^2+1&=(x+1)(x^3+x^2+x+1)+x^2\\ x^3+x^2+x+1&=(x+1)x^2+(x+1)\\ x^2&=x(x+1)+x\\ x+1&=1\cdot x+\color{red}{1} \end{align*}$$
The gcd is in red. Working upwards, and taking advantage of the fact that subtraction in $\Bbb Z_2[x]$ is addition, we have
$$\begin{align*} 1&=1\cdot(x+1)+1\cdot x\\ &=1\cdot(x+1)+1\cdot\left(x^2+x(x+1)\right)\\ &=(x+1)(x+1)+1\cdot x^2\\ &=(x+1)\left(f(x)+(x+1)x^2\right)+1\cdot x^2\\ &=(x+1)f(x)+\left((x+1)^2+1\right)x^2\\ &=(x+1)f(x)+x^2\cdot x^2\\ &=(x+1)f(x)+x^2\Big(g(x)+(x+1)f(x)\Big)\\ &=\left(x+1+x^2(x+1)\right)f(x)+x^2 g(x)\\ &=(x+1)\left(x^2+1\right)f(x)+x^2 g(x)\\ &=(x+1)^3 f(x)+x^2 g(x)\;. \end{align*}$$
As Bill Dubuque points out, and as is illustrated for numerical problems in the Wikipedia article on the extended Euclidean algorithm, there are more efficient ways to carry out the computations, but this is perhaps the easiest way to see clearly exactly what is going on.
Here is the Code package polynomial;
import java.io.BufferedReader; import java.io.FileNotFoundException; import java.io.FileReader; import java.io.IOException;
class PolyFunction { private int degree; private int coeff[];
PolyFunction(int deg, int coef) {
this.coeff = new int [deg+1];
this.coeff[deg] = coef;
this.degree = deg;
}
int getDegree() {
int d = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < coeff.length; i++)
if (coeff[i] != 0) d = i;
return d;
}
void checkMode(int primeNumber) {
for (int i = 0; i <= getDegree(); i++) {
coeff[i] %= primeNumber;
if (coeff[i] < 0)
coeff[i] += primeNumber;
}
}
PolyFunction addition(PolyFunction gx,int primeNumber) {
PolyFunction fx = this;
PolyFunction fPlusG = new PolyFunction(Math.max(fx.degree, gx.degree),0);
for (int i = 0; i <= fx.degree; i++) {
fPlusG.coeff[i] += fx.coeff[i];
}
for (int i = 0; i <= gx.degree; i++) {
fPlusG.coeff[i] += gx.coeff[i];
}
fPlusG.checkMode(primeNumber);
return fPlusG;
}
PolyFunction minus(PolyFunction gx, int primeNumber) {
PolyFunction fx = this;
PolyFunction fMinusg = new PolyFunction(Math.max(fx.degree, gx.degree), 0);
for (int i = 0; i <= fx.degree; i++) {
fMinusg.coeff[i] += fx.coeff[i];
}
for (int i = 0; i <= gx.degree; i++) {
fMinusg.coeff[i] -= gx.coeff[i];
}
fMinusg.checkMode(primeNumber);
//fMinusg.degree = fMinusg.getDegree();
return fMinusg;
}
PolyFunction multiple(PolyFunction gx) {
PolyFunction fx = this;
PolyFunction fMulg = new PolyFunction(fx.degree + gx.degree, 0);
for (int i = 0; i <= fx.degree; i++)
for (int j = 0; j <= gx.degree; j++)
fMulg.coeff[i+j] += (fx.coeff[i] * gx.coeff[j]);
return fMulg;
}
PolyFunction[] PLDA(PolyFunction gx, int primeNumber) {
PolyFunction fx = this;
fx.checkMode(primeNumber);
gx.checkMode(primeNumber);
PolyFunction []qr = new PolyFunction[2];
qr[1] = fx;
qr[0] = new PolyFunction(0,0);
int degofQ = fx.getDegree() - gx.getDegree() ;
if (degofQ == 0 && gx.getDegree() == 0) {
//System.out.println("deg is zero");
int temp [] = EEA(primeNumber, gx.coeff[0]);
int divResult = (qr[1].coeff[qr[1].getDegree()] * temp[1]);
divResult %= primeNumber;
if ( divResult < 0)
divResult += primeNumber;
qr[0] = new PolyFunction((qr[1].getDegree()-gx.getDegree()), divResult);
qr[1] = new PolyFunction(0, 0);
return qr;
}
if (degofQ < 0) {
qr[1] = gx;
qr[0] = fx;
return qr;
}
while((qr[1].getDegree() >= gx.getDegree()) && (qr[1].getDegree()!=0 && qr[1].coeff[0]!=0)) {
int [] temp = EEA(primeNumber,gx.coeff[gx.getDegree()]);
int divResult = (qr[1].coeff[qr[1].getDegree()] * temp[1]);
divResult %= primeNumber;
if ( divResult < 0)
divResult += primeNumber;
PolyFunction tx = new PolyFunction((qr[1].getDegree()-gx.getDegree()), divResult);
qr[0] = qr[0].addition(tx,primeNumber);
PolyFunction txgx = tx.multiple(gx);
qr[1] = qr[1].minus(txgx,primeNumber);
qr[0].checkMode(primeNumber);
qr[1].checkMode(primeNumber);
}
return qr;
}
PolyFunction[] EEAP(PolyFunction gx,int primeNumber) {
PolyFunction fx = this;
PolyFunction []qr = new PolyFunction[2];
if ((gx.getDegree() == 0) && gx.coeff[0] == 0) {
int [] temp = EEA(primeNumber,fx.coeff[fx.getDegree()]);
int divResult = (1 * temp[1]);
divResult %= primeNumber;
if ( divResult < 0)
divResult += primeNumber;
qr[0] = new PolyFunction(0, divResult);
qr[1] = new PolyFunction(0, 0);
return qr;
}
else {
PolyFunction []R = new PolyFunction[2];
qr = fx.PLDA(gx,primeNumber);
PolyFunction q = qr[0];
PolyFunction r = qr[1];
R = gx.EEAP(r,primeNumber);
PolyFunction ux = R[1];
ux.checkMode(primeNumber);
PolyFunction vx = R[0].minus(q.multiple(R[1]), primeNumber);
vx.checkMode(primeNumber);
return new PolyFunction[]{ux,vx};
}
}
public int[] EEA(int a, int b){
if(b == 0){
return new int[]{1,0};
} else {
int q = a/b;
int r = a%b;
int[] R = EEA(b,r);
return new int[]{R[1], R[0]-q*R[1]};
}
}
public String toString() {
if (degree == 0) return "" + coeff[0];
if (degree == 1) return coeff[1] + "x + " + coeff[0];
String ret = coeff[getDegree()] + "x^" + getDegree();
for (int i = getDegree()-1; i >= 0; i--) {
if (coeff[i] == 0) continue;
else if (coeff[i] > 0) ret = ret + " + " + ( coeff[i]);
else if (coeff[i] < 0) ret = ret + " - " + (-coeff[i]);
if (i == 1) ret = ret + "x";
else if (i > 1) ret = ret + "x^" + i;
}
return ret;
}
}
public class GF2 { private PolyFunction fx; private PolyFunction gx; private PolyFunction mx; private int primeNumber;
GF2(String file) {
fx = gx = mx = null;
if (readInput(file) == -1)
return;
System.out.println("PrimeNumber is " + primeNumber);
System.out.println("mx is " + mx);
System.out.println("fx is " + fx);
System.out.println("gx is " + gx);
}
private int readInput(String file) {
int mxDeg = 0, fxDeg = 0, gxDeg = 0;
try {
int counter = 1;
FileReader fileReader = new FileReader(file);
BufferedReader bufferedReader = new BufferedReader(fileReader);
String data = null;
while(( data= bufferedReader.readLine()) != null) {
switch(counter) {
case 1:
primeNumber = Integer.parseInt(data);
break;
case 2:
mxDeg = Integer.parseInt(data);
break;
case 3:
String [] mxToken = data.split("\\s+");
PolyFunction []p = new PolyFunction[mxToken.length+1];
for(int i=0; i < mxToken.length; i++) {
p[i] = new PolyFunction(mxDeg-i, Integer.parseInt(mxToken[i]));
}
mx = p[0];
for(int i=1; i < mxToken.length; i++)
mx = mx.addition(p[i],primeNumber);
break;
case 4:
fxDeg = Integer.parseInt(data);;
break;
case 5:
String [] fxToken = data.split("\\s+");
PolyFunction []pf = new PolyFunction[fxToken.length+1];
for(int i=0; i < fxToken.length; i++) {
pf[i] = new PolyFunction(fxDeg-i, Integer.parseInt(fxToken[i]));
}
fx = pf[0];
for(int i=1; i < fxToken.length; i++)
fx = fx.addition(pf[i], primeNumber);
break;
case 6:
gxDeg = Integer.parseInt(data);
case 7:
String [] gxToken = data.split("\\s+");
PolyFunction []pg = new PolyFunction[gxToken.length+1];
for(int i=0; i < gxToken.length; i++) {
pg[i] = new PolyFunction(gxDeg-i, Integer.parseInt(gxToken[i]));
}
gx = pg[0];
for(int i=1; i < gxToken.length; i++)
gx = gx.addition(pg[i],primeNumber);
break;
}
counter++;
}
bufferedReader.close();
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
System.out.println("Input file is not able to open");
return -1;
} catch (IOException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
return -1;
}
return 0;
}
void dmas() {
System.out.println("Addition is : " + fx.addition(gx, primeNumber));
System.out.println("Subtraction is : " + fx.minus(gx, primeNumber));
PolyFunction fMulg = fx.multiple(gx);
if (fMulg.getDegree() >= mx.getDegree()) {
fMulg = fMulg.PLDA(mx,primeNumber)[1];
fMulg.checkMode(primeNumber);
}
System.out.println("Multiplication is : " + fMulg.toString());
PolyFunction fDivg = mx.EEAP(gx,primeNumber)[1];
fDivg = fx.multiple(fDivg);
if (fDivg.getDegree() >= mx.getDegree()) {
fDivg = fDivg.PLDA(mx,primeNumber)[1];
fDivg.checkMode(primeNumber);
}
System.out.println("Division is : " + fDivg);
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
String file = "src\\polynomial\\myinput.txt";
GF2 obj = new GF2(file);
obj.dmas();
}
}
